MINDFULNESS and self-awareness Athletic workshopHaley’s senior project explored the issue of mental health in athletes, and how that in conjunction with pressure affects them on mental and physical levels. She researched into specific mental disorders athletes face, and different remediation methods that can be used to fight these dangerous effects. Her TED Talk focused primarily on two specific mental disorders faced by athletes and informing her audience on its effects and what can be done to fight back against these issues. For her action project, she ran a workshop among young athletes, with the goal in mind to open a bridge of connection between athletes, through group activities, and assessments of individuals in order to help them gain the tools they need to help themselves.
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I chose to take on this topic because athletics have been apart of my life for as long as I can remember. Once I began to take on competitive swimming as a large part of my life, I started to see some of the issues I researched for this project arise in my own life and begin to influence my swimming. After discovering my own ways to take on the problems I was facing in my life, I discovered that this was an issue I deeply wanted to devote myself to for my senior project. I wanted to be able to conceptualize the experiences I was having in my own life, with the ultimate goal in mind to one day be able to help other athletes in my community and bring awareness to the things I was finding through my research. Since there is a high potential that athletes may not be able to recognize if they are dealing with things in their own life; therefore part of my goal for this project was to be able to help them recognize these potential issues and progress with them through it.
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TED TalkAddressing the issue of athlete mental health. In this talk, the specific issues of Anorexia Athletica, Overtraining Syndrome, and Somatic Anxiety are discussed. In addition, remediation methods identified as "pressure solutions" are explained in detail.
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How do the pressures that athletes face impact their mental health and ultimately their performance?
Abstract
In the world of sports athletes are highly subjected to extreme levels of mental stress and pressure often resulting in mental disorders. The magnification that comes from the media, coaches, and even the athlete themselves, puts not only their mental health at risk, but their performance as well. In this paper, the characteristics of mental disorders are discussed, and as well as how they can affect athlete performance; remedial tactics, and “pressure solutions” are also explored. This research draws on the most commonly seen mental disorders and how they disrupt performance. In the original research, there is a link between the pressure athletes face to uphold groundbreaking performance and mental disorders such as: anxiety, depression, overtraining syndrome, and eating disorders. Stigma also plays a large factor as athletes rarely look for help as it creates a sign of weakness. However, psychological help is often inadequate or unavailable. These conclusions suggest that athletes are just as prone to mental illness as any other citizen, and their mental health is just as important to their performance as their physical health. Because much of the remediation is in the hands of the athlete, more effective solutions to this epidemic need be explored.
Part I: Introduction
“I’ve grown up in sport with the impression I was meant to be a superhero. You’re supposed to be able to handle things. You are in high pressure situations so you are convinced you should be able to handle those situations yourself, so it is hard to get help, it is admitting you have weakness.”
-Natasha Danvers
Mind, body, and sport. An athlete's rigorous daily routine must work to keep up all three of these vital functions in order to create a promising performance outcome. Athletes face intense levels of somatic, and mental stress, often resulting in mental disorders that are seldom discussed leading to delayed diagnosis, intensifying mental disorders leading to decreased physical performance. Nearly 43.8 million Americans experience mental illness in some form in a given year (National Alliance on Mental Illness). With the intense physical and emotional demands athletes of all levels are placed under to bring “A” level performance to the table, they become more and more susceptible to these damaging disorders as well. Furthermore, the issue of negative stigma around mental illness in athletes is perpetuated by media, coaches, other teammates, and even the athletes themselves, creating environments in which competitors are hesitant to speak up. The fear they have of creating a sign of weakness results in inadequate psychological help. However, certain measures can be taken in order to help remediate the harmful effects that mental illnesses have on athletes. This paper will outline the dangerous effects of pressure that lead to dangerous mental disorders with life altering effects; what different types of remediation entail, and anecdotes from sportspeople who have spoken out about their own personal battles. Athletes of all levels make up many different communities around the country, and the social world of organized sports should not be keeping athletes from the competitions they are passionate about. Athletes may set the bar for their own success, but struggling in silence only increases the pressure and emotional strain they face everyday, which it why it is imperative that more research be done on this topic.
Part II: Context and Historical Background
The nature of athlete’s performance can be dependant on many different factors. In order to understand how athletic performance is affected by certain mental disorders, outside influences, and stress and pressure filled situations, we must first identify the differences between choking and clutch performances. As well as introducing a few key terms in order to understand illnesses such as: overtraining syndrome, somatic anxiety, anorexia athletica , deep acting, and surface acting in order to better comprehend how pressure can determine choking and clutch moments, and how they can be identified.
In the article “Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure,” author Mark Otten describes a clutch performance as: “...any performance increment or superior performance that occurs under pressure circumstances” (Ottan 2). Additionally, the properties of a “choke” performance were stated as: “...any performance “decrement” of inferior performance under pressure circumstances” (qtd. in Baumeister 610). Additionally, terms that will be used to better understand the context of this paper are defined below:
Overtraining Syndrome: An imbalance of a simple equation: training=workout+recovery. The full spectrum of overtraining can result in hormonal, nutritional, mental/emotional, muscular, neurological and other imbalances (Maffetone).
Somatic vs. Cognitive Anxiety: Somatic anxiety is a name for the physical, as opposed to “cognitive” or "mental" manifestations of anxiety. People who react to anxiety mainly in a physical manner experience primarily somatic anxiety, whereas people who react to it mainly mentally experience primarily cognitive anxiety (Somatic Anxiety - Treating the Body vs. the Mind).
Anorexia Athletica : In anorexia athletica, self-worth is tied to physical performance and although some concern may be present about the size and shape of the body, more emphasis is placed on how lean a person is as compared to his or her successful or professional counterparts. anorexia athletica may occur when coaches or parents pressure athletes to improve performance and encourage an increase exercise or training or dieting. Such behaviors may begin as voluntary but then progress to obsessive (anorexia athletica).
Deep Acting: The regulation of inner feeling (Indrecia 11).
Surface Acting: Regulation of emotional expression (Indrecia 11)
Emotion Regulation: The effort that individuals submit to amplify, maintain or decrease one or more aspects of an emotion (qtd. in Gross & Thompson, 2007).
With the key terms above defined, and the difference in choking and clutch performance identified, it is now appropriate to move into the nature of individual mental disorders, issues of stigma and delayed diagnosis, a deep look into the anatomy of pressure, how it chokes athletes during performance, and finally what techniques we can use to help remediate the harmful effects of mental disorders in an attempt to solve this nation wide dilema.
Part III: Research and Analysis
Sections A: The Issue of Stigma and Delayed Diagnosis
The cultural idealization of athletes, their overall health and ability to perform, often prevents the general public from believing that athletes can have any level of mental disorders. This dangerous expectation perpetuates a situation in which there is a neglect of mental treatment available for athletes, as well as creates a large level of negative stigma around the issue as a whole. The high expectations for athletes to demonstrate strength, stability, and a “no fear” mindset is commonly perpetrated by the idea that the public has: athletes are capable of and therefore ought to perform and be superior to the average human. As a result of this, it is more widely accepted that there is no room in the world of sports for mental disorders, because they are considered failures on behalf of the person and more so the athlete. In an article by the NCAA outlining how to understand and support the mental wellbeing in athletes, the authors state that: “In many ways, this stigma further exacerbates the problem of student-athlete mental health as it inhibits effective dialogue, education and development of resources to address these issues” (Carr et al. Davidson). This issue of stigma leads to the epidemic of both delayed diagnosis, inadequate resources, and limited access for athletes who have been fortunate enough to identify their disorder. The same NCAA article on the understanding of sportsman mental health, on the subject of there being little access of resources for athletes (the focus of this article was specifically on college athletes); it was stated that, “... not many programs employ full-time or even part-time licensed psychologists. Instead, they depend on campus resources such as student counseling centers to refer for mental health issues. The problem there is that few student counseling centers employ a psychologist who has the training/education to address student-athletes unique psychological needs” (Carr et al. Davidson). Commonly, the mental disorders that athletes experience are brought upon by sport specific physical and mental demands. Therefore, special qualification is often needed to meet these challenges. With such a demanding culture, it comes as no surprise that the pressure is on for athletes to bring everything to the table. Environmental influences on athletes undoubtedly shape the social aspects of the brain. The overwhelming physical demands faced by athletes often overshadow the underlying stigma of mental illness and results in a neglect of identification and diagnosis of mental disorders.
Section B: Identifying Specific Mental Disorders
The intense pressure and long hours that athletes endure as a part of their ever changing training cycles often creates very severe emotional responses. Because athletes are generally perceived as being very high functioning in all aspects of life, it can be difficult to distinguish when they are under mental stress. Those specific types of responses can be broken down into specific mental disorders that affect athletes on a daily basis, acting as a hidden opponent for many. What follows are the most common mental disorders seen in sports, what forms they take, and how they affect athletes and their performance. The bottom line is that mental health is a matter of safety. It is vital that mental health be recognized and discussed for what can be a detriment not only to the athletic performance, but also long term health.
The athletic community, specifically “aesthetic sports” such as swimming, gymnastics, figure skating, running, etc., are shown in multiple studies to be highly predispositioned to eating disorders and body dysmorphia. These sports put emphasis on being physically fit. The risk for eating disorders is higher for not only “aesthetic sports” but sports that put an emphasis on physical appearance, such as diving, or wrestling. Lower body weights are frequently correlated with higher performance. This, in conjunction with the social pressures to “look good” while performing, create a high pressure environment causing many female athletes to exhibit anorexic like behavior, commonly referred to as “anorexia athletica”. Although athletes with anorexia athletica may show signs of eating patterns or activity levels that strongly resemble anorexic like behavior, it is common that they do not fulfill the diagnostic criteria, resulting in delayed diagnosis. One of the main causes for this behavior is the desire for control. Athletes will often tie their self-worth to their performance, some added concern may come from the size and shape of their body. This disorder can also tie into issues of compulsive exercise and exercise addiction. Both leading back to the attempt of total body control. “The incidence of at least one eating disorder-related criterion was reported in as high as 73.6% of athletes of different sports”(Bar et al. Markser 2). The second most common type of eating disorder is bulimia nervosa. As identified by the academic article, “Sport Specificity of Mental Disorders: The Issue of Sport Psychiatry”, bulimia nervosa is defined as involving “...repeated episodes of binge-eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as self induced vomiting, food restriction, or excessive exercise” (Bar et al. Markser 2). Mental disorders put incredible strain on the human brain. Studies have shown that a disordered brain has different pathways and thought processes then a healthy brain. Eating disorders frequently stem from a desire for control and a feeling of inadequacy. This feeling of inadequacy can be caused by subpar athletic performance, criticism from coaches and other athletes, judges, parents, etc., and a number of other factors. A desire for control and a feeling of inadequacy can also cause depression, overtraining syndrome, and various forms of anxiety. These show strong correlation to become more prevalent the higher the caliber of the athlete. Invariably these mental disorders and illnesses have long term negative impacts on both the mental health of the athlete and their physical performance. Female athletes with anorexia athletica show low energy availability, functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea and osteoporosis” (qtd. in Resch M, Haaz P 35-40). The data can be extrapolated to conclude that female athletes suffering from these side effects will inevitably have reduced aerobic capacity, muscle strength and volume, and baseline blood sugar. Unfortunately, the diagnosis for eating disorders is often less straightforward since athletes can suffer from more than one type of disorder that cannot fit into the general criteria. Mood disorders, specifically depression, in the context of overtraining syndrome are also extremely common among elite athletes. Overtraining syndrome consists of both physical and mental components. “The syndrome is defined as a state of performance loss and a chronic feeling of exhaustion coupled with excessive and continuous training. The athlete’s capacity to recuperate is extremely reduced” (Valentin Z. Markser 2). This intensive training can lead to depression, and there is much evidence to support that depression may be a mental answer to physical stress. Despite the fact that it is more commonly believed that exercise can be used as a method to combat depression. Valentin Z. Markser states the differences between depression and overtraining syndrome through the following description: “The first important difference between the general population and elite athletes might be the problem of distinguishing OTS from primary depression. Both OTS and depression are characterized by overlapping symptoms such as fatigue, insomnia, appetite change, weight loss, a lack of motivation and concentration difficulties” (qtd. in Armstrong LE, VanHeest JL 185-209). To add to this, “the neuroendocrinological and neurobiological changes lead to the release of endorphins and stress hormones that can result in an alteration of the synaptic cleft” (Valentin Z. Markser 3). Because of this shift in the brain, the athlete’s mood can be greatly influenced, making it difficult for them to recognize when they are in complete exhaustion. The general outline for overtraining syndrome is an imbalance in the athletes workout and recovery ratio. In a general sense, athletes train to perfect performance, the race to reach optimal performance comes through an increase in training loads and intensity. However, when these loads of training cannot be matched with equal amounts of rest and recovery, overtraining can become an dangerous reality. A reality often going unnoticed because the athlete views it as a normal increase in training load as a means to perfect performance. Reasons for OTS are still somewhat unclear. In an academic article published by (qtd. in Armstrong LE, VanHeest JL 185-209). The underlying affects that OTS has on performance is ultimately something that can become very dangerous. Professional distance runner, Kathryn Ross discussed her own struggles with overtraining syndrome among other mental disorders in a personal interview. She concluded from her own experience, “ I developed many damaging habits such as restricting my eating and overtraining which resulted in a series of stress fractures, weight gain from unhealthy eating habits combined with constant overtraining, creating further mental stress from eventual decreased performance starting from about senior year of high school until I finally quit triathlon completely at 22” (Ross 1). From this, it can be interpreted that a large consequence of overtraining is high burnout levels in athletes. Similar to the issue of eating disorders, the treatment for OTS in the context of depression can vary depending on the situation the athlete is in, their level of performance, and the resources available to them. Although exhaustion depression is fairly common due to intensive training that overlaps with issues of OTS. The early diagnosis of overtraining is often difficult as well because the only initial key symptom is underperformance (due to an inability to maintain training loads), in addition to mood changes such as depression. Ross later opened up about how her issue of overtraining led to negatively affecting her life outside of her sport. “Training once consumed by life. I wouldn’t forgo other life experiences such as a family vacation, a weekend trip with friends or a night out because I had to train. I would say that the stress of getting my training in often took away from having a life outside of the sport” (Ross 2). Ross’ experience exposes the final most common mental disorder in athletics: exercise addiction and dependency. As it is known, the regular advantages to sports participation are gaining fitness, enjoyment, good competition, and healthy physical upkeep. However, when this participation is overdone, it can threaten social and physical wellbeing, and the athlete will often continue despite feelings of depression or guilt. “Dependency manifests itself in excessive dominance of exercise in everyday life, often to the detriment of other facets such as the family, social contacts or work” (qtd. in Whiting HTA). When the physical activity is taken away, symptoms of nervousness, and low self-esteem connecting to depression can appear. The athlete feels as if they need their physical activity in order to feel adequate and to gain tolerance of high intensity workouts. In addition, somatic anxiety can also become prevalent through this addiction. Athletes begin to feel physical symptoms from withdrawal such as headaches, and general discomfort. Similar to that of somatic anxiety which typically takes its place in athletes near an important competition. Somatic anxiety also relates to the body. For example, the “butterflies” an athlete might feel in their stomach before a performance. In an article written by Gobinder Gill on the topic of anxiety in sports performance, he gives a clear explanation on the concept of anxiety:
“There are two distinct aspects of anxiety. One aspect emanates towards trait anxiety. Trait anxiety relates to innate characteristics that humans are born with. For example, having a tendency to throw up before important competition. A second form of anxiety is related to the state, which is situational specific. For example, a performer may feel anxious when free-throwing in basketball. Related to these aspects there are also two mechanisms that are identified as somatic (physical feelings) and cognitive (mental) anxiety. Performers can suffer with both types of mechanisms or predominately from one over the other” (1).
Symptoms of somatic anxiety can include rapid breathing, stomachache, and increased heart rate. It it a very physical response to a situation. On the contrast, cognitive anxiety consists of trouble concentrating, repetitive and persistent negative thoughts, and overall unease. Both cognitive and somatic anxiety can be based off of one another, if one is more prevalent in the moment it typically can be implied that the other is less of a threat. However, when one is more frequent it can lead to symptoms of the other. Competitive swimmer of 9 years, Quinn Schmidt, detailed her struggle with various forms of anxiety in a personal interview. She illustrated it as, “...a feeling I couldn’t really get rid of. I was so stressed to do my best when it counted even after I knew I had trained up to that moment for so long. A few times, I would drive myself into sickness during meets by going and puking both before and after my races, no matter if I had done good or bad. I wasn’t the only one either, other swimmers I knew had the same problem. I’d sometimes forget to eat during my meets making things worse, making me not be able to clearly think about the goal I was trying to complete” (Schmidt 1). Based off of this, it can be interpreted that stresses to perform well, and the anxiety that comes with it overlap to create unhealthy environments for the growing athlete. Schmidt and Ross share very similar experiences, although the level of their performance is completely different. Further proving that the mental disorders that have been outlined are not limited to any one type of athlete, nor any athletic endeavor.
Section C: The Anatomy of Pressure in Correlation to Clutch and Choke Performance
The pressure that can make or break athletes is an epidemic of its own. It is the very nature of pressure that can impair the performance of an athlete. In order to understand choking vs. clutch performance, the very nature of pressure and stress must be explored, since it plays a key role in the development of mental disorders in athletes. Since there is a constant pressure to perform and meet certain expectations, and as the specifics of high pressure situations can vary, all of these moments share common attributes: the outcome is important to the athlete, the outcome is uncertain, and the athlete feels they are responsible for the outcome. As authors of the book, “Performing Under Pressure The Science of Doing Your Best When It Matters Most”, Hendrie Weisinger and J.P. Pawliw-Fry put it: “The more important the outcome is to you, the more uncertain the outcome, and the more responsible you feel for the results (and the more judged you feel), the more intense the pressure situation and the more likely you are to underperform” (47). Naturally, all athletes want to succeed in the tasks they deem the most important in order to avoid failure. One key aspect in understanding situation like this is understanding the role the hormone Cortisol has in the minds of those in these situations. Cortisol is an important hormone in relation to how athletes react under pressure. The hormone alters our ability to retrieve both working and cognitive memory. Working memory affects one’s judgement, their ability to analyze data, and how well they recall crucial information for decision making. Procedural memory affects one’s ability to perform tasks they have already mastered, actions that are already memorized. For most athletes these would be important functions to have under control in a crucial moment of competition. Cortisol, in combination with corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), “produced by the amygdala, cortisol incites anxiety, commonly called “anticipatory anxiety”, and suppresses the production of testosterone. In absence of testosterone, approach-based behavior diminishes and our attention becomes selectively focused on negative aspects of a situation” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 49). Because of this, athletes may see things in their environment as threatening, and becoming paranoid. This causes their thinking to become much more emotional based rather than factual, amplifying that uncertain feeling of their potential outcome. An athlete’s success not only comes from how well they perform during competition, but how they are seen outside of competing. Being perceived by the public media, coaches, parents, or other teammates can wildly change how an athlete can behave during a match. High pressure situations evoke feelings of inadequacy, humiliation, and harassment if an athlete does not perform up to par. If a competitor is to “choke” when it matters the social pain from feeling or being rejected can cause similar pain to that of a physical wound. Matthew Lieberman of UCLA conducted neuroimaging studies in order to show the connection between social and physical pain, and the underlying process system our brain goes through. He described the significance of his findings: “...we are profoundly shaped by our social environment and that we suffer greatly when our bonds are threatened or severed. The things that cause us to feel pain are things that are evolutionarily recognized as threats to our survival…” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 51&52). Continus fear of social rejection can create a higher chance of choking in a performance. Choking is every performers nightmare. It is one thing for an athlete to be impacted by pressure, but when an entire athletic performance is compromised, we define that as a choke. In the academic article “Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure,” author Mark Otten describes a choke performance as: “...any performance “decrement” of inferior performance under pressure circumstances” (qtd. in Baumeister 610). Choking occurs when the individual wants to perform well, yet delivers a performance that is below what they are capable of. The way pressure chokes an athlete can be broken up into three factors of the human performance system: 1) Physical arousal, 2) thoughts, and 3) behavior. These three functioning systems rely off one another. The book, Performing Under Pressure, describes how pressure chokes one in relation to these three functions as the following:
“One way or another it disrupts your performance system. In a pressure moment, if your heart rates starts to zoom, your thinking is apt to become rigid and distorted. Similarly, if you perceive that your survival depends on the outcome of the pressure moment, you are apt, to stimulate anxiety and fear arousal that, in turn, make the moment even more threatening. The end result: you lose control of your physical arousal, thinking ability, and capability to execute the behaviors you need” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 58&59).
Attention during pressure moments is typically narrow for the athlete. They may experience higher levels of self-doubt and interfering thoughts that are irrelevant to the task at hand, despite being more than ready to perform. Athletes will often wonder if they have what it takes, or if their level is “good enough”, derailing their abilities and causing them to second guess themselves when it matters most. While athletes are more apt to be victim to choke performances as a result of debilitative anxiety, some athletes are able to perform better under pressure. This is known as a “clutch performance”. In the academic article “Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure,” Otten goes to describe a clutch performance as: “...any performance increment or superior performance that occurs under pressure circumstances” (Ottan 2). Clutch performances can be attributed to how the functional responses of the athlete differ to the requests of the competition. This can also relate back to the intrinsic/extrinsic motivations of the athlete, what they personally wish to get out of their performance and where their satisfaction lies. Whether they’re aiming to please their team, their fans, or push themselves to their limits. Forms of psychological momentum can also be a potential advantage to avoid choking; or an added “psychological power” that gives an athlete the feeling that they have an advantage over their competition. In other words, this could also be defined as “psyching out” the rest of the field. Some athletes may know how to react better under pressure due to prediction and control, which gives them higher attention levels to the task at hand. The levels of pressure that are accompanied with certain performances can heightened physical arousal in some athletes leading them to an individual zone of optimal functioning. However, as the Yerkes Dodson Law predicts, “ As arousal increases, performance also increases - but only to a certain point, after which increasing arousal actually decreases performance” (Yerkes-Dodson Law). Although there is no concrete one size fits all answer as to why some athlete perform well under pressure and some do not, training athletes in the direction of confidence, controlled performances, and steering them away from investing unneeded attention in the task at hand is imperative for success under extreme levels of pressure. Certain measures can be taken in order to alter the effects of rigid moments. In the following segment, the topic of regulating the consequences of pressure will be overviewed, in order to provide athletes with affective pressure solutions so that they may avoid choking moments in future competition.
Section D: Effective Remediation Methods For the Passionate Athlete
There is no secret as to why some athletes buckle under pressure, and some rise to the occasion. However, there are certain practices that can be taken up in order to relieve the high stress feelings an athlete can encounter. These solutions can be classified as, “pressure solutions” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 110). A pressure solution is a strategy that can be used regulate and redirect the pressure of a moment so athletes can perform to their fullest potential. “Pressure solutions immunize you to the pressure moment because, in one way or another they:
As referenced, one of the first steps in remediation is utilizing the moment. This can begin with different forms of emotion regulation and management. In order to help manage emotions, athletes can attempt forms of emotion regulation in order to control their emotion regulation process. Athletes can work through, selecting the situation, changing the situation, and diverting their attention to help them manage the moment. Emotion regulation can be defined as, “...the effort that individuals submit to amplify, maintain or decrease one or more aspects of an emotion” (qtd. in Gross & Thompson, 2007). Athletes can practice their regulation of expression through “deep acting” and “surface acting”; through these actions the regulation of inner feeling can produce behaviors that can benefit performance in certain situations. Deep acting can be characterized by a person who is attempting to feel a specific emotion that they’re thinking about in their mind. Similarly, surface acting can be characterized by one attempting to fake an emotion to meet certain social rules. The internal manifestation of certain feelings and emotions can generate positive feelings to act as beneficial requests of the competition. Befriending the moment can be an athletes most reliable strategy. When an athlete takes control of their cognitive tendencies and general expressions they construct a byproduct of success though meeting their own challenges. It is common that athletes see high-pressure situations as threatening. On the contrast, if athletes convince themselves that high pressure situations are a challenge or an opportunity to show their full potential, building this confidence helps athletes draw on the positive aspects of their sport and the skills they excel at. Hence, releasing the effects of pressure. The book, Performing Under Pressure represents the importance of befriending the pressure moment on a physiological level:
“Feeling challenged in an inherent performance steroid-your body releases more adrenaline than noradrenaline, which means the smooth muscle in your blood vessels dilate, as do your lungs, and now you have more oxygenated blood going to the tissues that need it. Your body has more energy and your brain can think more clearly” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 112).
Thriving on the challenge of performance as opposed to the threat, helps the athlete to put their attention towards the “mission”. The confidence that also comes with emotion regulation and management also helps affirm self-worth. Putting away self-consciousness and tuning in on strengths naturally affirms ego. Affirming ego to a certain extent creates a more adaptable athlete; one that can handle pressure situations and failure with more resiliency. Calling upon previous success helps create a mindset in athletes that ensures success again is possible. Thoughts and behavior associated with past experience become imprinted on the brain, the more frequently these experiences are thought of, the more implanted they become and the more likely they are to resurface in current experiences. Using these tools, nervousness can be transformed into positive pressure solutions for every passionate athlete, helping even the most prepared navigate high pressure situations.
Part IV: Conclusions and Discussions
“You don’t need to heap pressure on yourself, because it can make you close down and shrivel up. You fight that. You stay open. You stay calm. You trust all the work you did. And that will make you free.”
-Anthony Ervin
Mind, body, and sport. Not only must an athletes daily routine work to keep up all three of these vital functions, but the athlete and those supporting them must be patient. Patient, not only for a promising performance outcome, but patient in the athlete. Patient in their ability to handle the high levels of somatic and mental stress due to pressure that so many other athletes like them face everyday. The purpose of this paper was to outline the dangerous effects of mental disorders caused by pressure, the characteristics of both, and how athletes can take preventative measures to avoid such detrimental issues. Although there have been advancements in this field, the root for optimal training begins in the mind. The unfortunate reality of this situation is athletes seldom open up about mental disorders they may face due to cultural stigma. Mental disorders such as: anxiety, eating disorders, overtraining syndrome, and depression; often lead to “choke” performances. The key to remediation comes in the act of “pressure solutions” and the help from psychologists who specialize in the field. However, more work is to be done in this area as many resources for students are not made up of licensed psychologists with proper experience. Environmental influences shape the social aspects of the brain, the larger implications of this research strongly suggest that harmful societal expectations place unneeded pressure on athletes putting not only their physical performance at stake, but their mental wellbeing as well. In order for athletes to continue to thrive in such daunting environments, much of the remediation process is left in their own hands. Athletes of all levels make up many different communities around the country, and the social world of organized sports should not be keeping athletes from the competitions they are passionate about. Athletes may set the bar for their own success, but struggling in silence only increases the pressure and emotional strain they face everyday, which it why it is imperative that more research be done on this topic. Every athlete deserves to be passionate about the sports that the love; the arise of pressure and mental disorders should never keep them from performing to their fullest potential. The desire to seek help in such an unforgiving field does not admit weakness, but proves the strength within.
In the world of sports athletes are highly subjected to extreme levels of mental stress and pressure often resulting in mental disorders. The magnification that comes from the media, coaches, and even the athlete themselves, puts not only their mental health at risk, but their performance as well. In this paper, the characteristics of mental disorders are discussed, and as well as how they can affect athlete performance; remedial tactics, and “pressure solutions” are also explored. This research draws on the most commonly seen mental disorders and how they disrupt performance. In the original research, there is a link between the pressure athletes face to uphold groundbreaking performance and mental disorders such as: anxiety, depression, overtraining syndrome, and eating disorders. Stigma also plays a large factor as athletes rarely look for help as it creates a sign of weakness. However, psychological help is often inadequate or unavailable. These conclusions suggest that athletes are just as prone to mental illness as any other citizen, and their mental health is just as important to their performance as their physical health. Because much of the remediation is in the hands of the athlete, more effective solutions to this epidemic need be explored.
Part I: Introduction
“I’ve grown up in sport with the impression I was meant to be a superhero. You’re supposed to be able to handle things. You are in high pressure situations so you are convinced you should be able to handle those situations yourself, so it is hard to get help, it is admitting you have weakness.”
-Natasha Danvers
Mind, body, and sport. An athlete's rigorous daily routine must work to keep up all three of these vital functions in order to create a promising performance outcome. Athletes face intense levels of somatic, and mental stress, often resulting in mental disorders that are seldom discussed leading to delayed diagnosis, intensifying mental disorders leading to decreased physical performance. Nearly 43.8 million Americans experience mental illness in some form in a given year (National Alliance on Mental Illness). With the intense physical and emotional demands athletes of all levels are placed under to bring “A” level performance to the table, they become more and more susceptible to these damaging disorders as well. Furthermore, the issue of negative stigma around mental illness in athletes is perpetuated by media, coaches, other teammates, and even the athletes themselves, creating environments in which competitors are hesitant to speak up. The fear they have of creating a sign of weakness results in inadequate psychological help. However, certain measures can be taken in order to help remediate the harmful effects that mental illnesses have on athletes. This paper will outline the dangerous effects of pressure that lead to dangerous mental disorders with life altering effects; what different types of remediation entail, and anecdotes from sportspeople who have spoken out about their own personal battles. Athletes of all levels make up many different communities around the country, and the social world of organized sports should not be keeping athletes from the competitions they are passionate about. Athletes may set the bar for their own success, but struggling in silence only increases the pressure and emotional strain they face everyday, which it why it is imperative that more research be done on this topic.
Part II: Context and Historical Background
The nature of athlete’s performance can be dependant on many different factors. In order to understand how athletic performance is affected by certain mental disorders, outside influences, and stress and pressure filled situations, we must first identify the differences between choking and clutch performances. As well as introducing a few key terms in order to understand illnesses such as: overtraining syndrome, somatic anxiety, anorexia athletica , deep acting, and surface acting in order to better comprehend how pressure can determine choking and clutch moments, and how they can be identified.
In the article “Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure,” author Mark Otten describes a clutch performance as: “...any performance increment or superior performance that occurs under pressure circumstances” (Ottan 2). Additionally, the properties of a “choke” performance were stated as: “...any performance “decrement” of inferior performance under pressure circumstances” (qtd. in Baumeister 610). Additionally, terms that will be used to better understand the context of this paper are defined below:
Overtraining Syndrome: An imbalance of a simple equation: training=workout+recovery. The full spectrum of overtraining can result in hormonal, nutritional, mental/emotional, muscular, neurological and other imbalances (Maffetone).
Somatic vs. Cognitive Anxiety: Somatic anxiety is a name for the physical, as opposed to “cognitive” or "mental" manifestations of anxiety. People who react to anxiety mainly in a physical manner experience primarily somatic anxiety, whereas people who react to it mainly mentally experience primarily cognitive anxiety (Somatic Anxiety - Treating the Body vs. the Mind).
Anorexia Athletica : In anorexia athletica, self-worth is tied to physical performance and although some concern may be present about the size and shape of the body, more emphasis is placed on how lean a person is as compared to his or her successful or professional counterparts. anorexia athletica may occur when coaches or parents pressure athletes to improve performance and encourage an increase exercise or training or dieting. Such behaviors may begin as voluntary but then progress to obsessive (anorexia athletica).
Deep Acting: The regulation of inner feeling (Indrecia 11).
Surface Acting: Regulation of emotional expression (Indrecia 11)
Emotion Regulation: The effort that individuals submit to amplify, maintain or decrease one or more aspects of an emotion (qtd. in Gross & Thompson, 2007).
With the key terms above defined, and the difference in choking and clutch performance identified, it is now appropriate to move into the nature of individual mental disorders, issues of stigma and delayed diagnosis, a deep look into the anatomy of pressure, how it chokes athletes during performance, and finally what techniques we can use to help remediate the harmful effects of mental disorders in an attempt to solve this nation wide dilema.
Part III: Research and Analysis
Sections A: The Issue of Stigma and Delayed Diagnosis
The cultural idealization of athletes, their overall health and ability to perform, often prevents the general public from believing that athletes can have any level of mental disorders. This dangerous expectation perpetuates a situation in which there is a neglect of mental treatment available for athletes, as well as creates a large level of negative stigma around the issue as a whole. The high expectations for athletes to demonstrate strength, stability, and a “no fear” mindset is commonly perpetrated by the idea that the public has: athletes are capable of and therefore ought to perform and be superior to the average human. As a result of this, it is more widely accepted that there is no room in the world of sports for mental disorders, because they are considered failures on behalf of the person and more so the athlete. In an article by the NCAA outlining how to understand and support the mental wellbeing in athletes, the authors state that: “In many ways, this stigma further exacerbates the problem of student-athlete mental health as it inhibits effective dialogue, education and development of resources to address these issues” (Carr et al. Davidson). This issue of stigma leads to the epidemic of both delayed diagnosis, inadequate resources, and limited access for athletes who have been fortunate enough to identify their disorder. The same NCAA article on the understanding of sportsman mental health, on the subject of there being little access of resources for athletes (the focus of this article was specifically on college athletes); it was stated that, “... not many programs employ full-time or even part-time licensed psychologists. Instead, they depend on campus resources such as student counseling centers to refer for mental health issues. The problem there is that few student counseling centers employ a psychologist who has the training/education to address student-athletes unique psychological needs” (Carr et al. Davidson). Commonly, the mental disorders that athletes experience are brought upon by sport specific physical and mental demands. Therefore, special qualification is often needed to meet these challenges. With such a demanding culture, it comes as no surprise that the pressure is on for athletes to bring everything to the table. Environmental influences on athletes undoubtedly shape the social aspects of the brain. The overwhelming physical demands faced by athletes often overshadow the underlying stigma of mental illness and results in a neglect of identification and diagnosis of mental disorders.
Section B: Identifying Specific Mental Disorders
The intense pressure and long hours that athletes endure as a part of their ever changing training cycles often creates very severe emotional responses. Because athletes are generally perceived as being very high functioning in all aspects of life, it can be difficult to distinguish when they are under mental stress. Those specific types of responses can be broken down into specific mental disorders that affect athletes on a daily basis, acting as a hidden opponent for many. What follows are the most common mental disorders seen in sports, what forms they take, and how they affect athletes and their performance. The bottom line is that mental health is a matter of safety. It is vital that mental health be recognized and discussed for what can be a detriment not only to the athletic performance, but also long term health.
The athletic community, specifically “aesthetic sports” such as swimming, gymnastics, figure skating, running, etc., are shown in multiple studies to be highly predispositioned to eating disorders and body dysmorphia. These sports put emphasis on being physically fit. The risk for eating disorders is higher for not only “aesthetic sports” but sports that put an emphasis on physical appearance, such as diving, or wrestling. Lower body weights are frequently correlated with higher performance. This, in conjunction with the social pressures to “look good” while performing, create a high pressure environment causing many female athletes to exhibit anorexic like behavior, commonly referred to as “anorexia athletica”. Although athletes with anorexia athletica may show signs of eating patterns or activity levels that strongly resemble anorexic like behavior, it is common that they do not fulfill the diagnostic criteria, resulting in delayed diagnosis. One of the main causes for this behavior is the desire for control. Athletes will often tie their self-worth to their performance, some added concern may come from the size and shape of their body. This disorder can also tie into issues of compulsive exercise and exercise addiction. Both leading back to the attempt of total body control. “The incidence of at least one eating disorder-related criterion was reported in as high as 73.6% of athletes of different sports”(Bar et al. Markser 2). The second most common type of eating disorder is bulimia nervosa. As identified by the academic article, “Sport Specificity of Mental Disorders: The Issue of Sport Psychiatry”, bulimia nervosa is defined as involving “...repeated episodes of binge-eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as self induced vomiting, food restriction, or excessive exercise” (Bar et al. Markser 2). Mental disorders put incredible strain on the human brain. Studies have shown that a disordered brain has different pathways and thought processes then a healthy brain. Eating disorders frequently stem from a desire for control and a feeling of inadequacy. This feeling of inadequacy can be caused by subpar athletic performance, criticism from coaches and other athletes, judges, parents, etc., and a number of other factors. A desire for control and a feeling of inadequacy can also cause depression, overtraining syndrome, and various forms of anxiety. These show strong correlation to become more prevalent the higher the caliber of the athlete. Invariably these mental disorders and illnesses have long term negative impacts on both the mental health of the athlete and their physical performance. Female athletes with anorexia athletica show low energy availability, functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea and osteoporosis” (qtd. in Resch M, Haaz P 35-40). The data can be extrapolated to conclude that female athletes suffering from these side effects will inevitably have reduced aerobic capacity, muscle strength and volume, and baseline blood sugar. Unfortunately, the diagnosis for eating disorders is often less straightforward since athletes can suffer from more than one type of disorder that cannot fit into the general criteria. Mood disorders, specifically depression, in the context of overtraining syndrome are also extremely common among elite athletes. Overtraining syndrome consists of both physical and mental components. “The syndrome is defined as a state of performance loss and a chronic feeling of exhaustion coupled with excessive and continuous training. The athlete’s capacity to recuperate is extremely reduced” (Valentin Z. Markser 2). This intensive training can lead to depression, and there is much evidence to support that depression may be a mental answer to physical stress. Despite the fact that it is more commonly believed that exercise can be used as a method to combat depression. Valentin Z. Markser states the differences between depression and overtraining syndrome through the following description: “The first important difference between the general population and elite athletes might be the problem of distinguishing OTS from primary depression. Both OTS and depression are characterized by overlapping symptoms such as fatigue, insomnia, appetite change, weight loss, a lack of motivation and concentration difficulties” (qtd. in Armstrong LE, VanHeest JL 185-209). To add to this, “the neuroendocrinological and neurobiological changes lead to the release of endorphins and stress hormones that can result in an alteration of the synaptic cleft” (Valentin Z. Markser 3). Because of this shift in the brain, the athlete’s mood can be greatly influenced, making it difficult for them to recognize when they are in complete exhaustion. The general outline for overtraining syndrome is an imbalance in the athletes workout and recovery ratio. In a general sense, athletes train to perfect performance, the race to reach optimal performance comes through an increase in training loads and intensity. However, when these loads of training cannot be matched with equal amounts of rest and recovery, overtraining can become an dangerous reality. A reality often going unnoticed because the athlete views it as a normal increase in training load as a means to perfect performance. Reasons for OTS are still somewhat unclear. In an academic article published by (qtd. in Armstrong LE, VanHeest JL 185-209). The underlying affects that OTS has on performance is ultimately something that can become very dangerous. Professional distance runner, Kathryn Ross discussed her own struggles with overtraining syndrome among other mental disorders in a personal interview. She concluded from her own experience, “ I developed many damaging habits such as restricting my eating and overtraining which resulted in a series of stress fractures, weight gain from unhealthy eating habits combined with constant overtraining, creating further mental stress from eventual decreased performance starting from about senior year of high school until I finally quit triathlon completely at 22” (Ross 1). From this, it can be interpreted that a large consequence of overtraining is high burnout levels in athletes. Similar to the issue of eating disorders, the treatment for OTS in the context of depression can vary depending on the situation the athlete is in, their level of performance, and the resources available to them. Although exhaustion depression is fairly common due to intensive training that overlaps with issues of OTS. The early diagnosis of overtraining is often difficult as well because the only initial key symptom is underperformance (due to an inability to maintain training loads), in addition to mood changes such as depression. Ross later opened up about how her issue of overtraining led to negatively affecting her life outside of her sport. “Training once consumed by life. I wouldn’t forgo other life experiences such as a family vacation, a weekend trip with friends or a night out because I had to train. I would say that the stress of getting my training in often took away from having a life outside of the sport” (Ross 2). Ross’ experience exposes the final most common mental disorder in athletics: exercise addiction and dependency. As it is known, the regular advantages to sports participation are gaining fitness, enjoyment, good competition, and healthy physical upkeep. However, when this participation is overdone, it can threaten social and physical wellbeing, and the athlete will often continue despite feelings of depression or guilt. “Dependency manifests itself in excessive dominance of exercise in everyday life, often to the detriment of other facets such as the family, social contacts or work” (qtd. in Whiting HTA). When the physical activity is taken away, symptoms of nervousness, and low self-esteem connecting to depression can appear. The athlete feels as if they need their physical activity in order to feel adequate and to gain tolerance of high intensity workouts. In addition, somatic anxiety can also become prevalent through this addiction. Athletes begin to feel physical symptoms from withdrawal such as headaches, and general discomfort. Similar to that of somatic anxiety which typically takes its place in athletes near an important competition. Somatic anxiety also relates to the body. For example, the “butterflies” an athlete might feel in their stomach before a performance. In an article written by Gobinder Gill on the topic of anxiety in sports performance, he gives a clear explanation on the concept of anxiety:
“There are two distinct aspects of anxiety. One aspect emanates towards trait anxiety. Trait anxiety relates to innate characteristics that humans are born with. For example, having a tendency to throw up before important competition. A second form of anxiety is related to the state, which is situational specific. For example, a performer may feel anxious when free-throwing in basketball. Related to these aspects there are also two mechanisms that are identified as somatic (physical feelings) and cognitive (mental) anxiety. Performers can suffer with both types of mechanisms or predominately from one over the other” (1).
Symptoms of somatic anxiety can include rapid breathing, stomachache, and increased heart rate. It it a very physical response to a situation. On the contrast, cognitive anxiety consists of trouble concentrating, repetitive and persistent negative thoughts, and overall unease. Both cognitive and somatic anxiety can be based off of one another, if one is more prevalent in the moment it typically can be implied that the other is less of a threat. However, when one is more frequent it can lead to symptoms of the other. Competitive swimmer of 9 years, Quinn Schmidt, detailed her struggle with various forms of anxiety in a personal interview. She illustrated it as, “...a feeling I couldn’t really get rid of. I was so stressed to do my best when it counted even after I knew I had trained up to that moment for so long. A few times, I would drive myself into sickness during meets by going and puking both before and after my races, no matter if I had done good or bad. I wasn’t the only one either, other swimmers I knew had the same problem. I’d sometimes forget to eat during my meets making things worse, making me not be able to clearly think about the goal I was trying to complete” (Schmidt 1). Based off of this, it can be interpreted that stresses to perform well, and the anxiety that comes with it overlap to create unhealthy environments for the growing athlete. Schmidt and Ross share very similar experiences, although the level of their performance is completely different. Further proving that the mental disorders that have been outlined are not limited to any one type of athlete, nor any athletic endeavor.
Section C: The Anatomy of Pressure in Correlation to Clutch and Choke Performance
The pressure that can make or break athletes is an epidemic of its own. It is the very nature of pressure that can impair the performance of an athlete. In order to understand choking vs. clutch performance, the very nature of pressure and stress must be explored, since it plays a key role in the development of mental disorders in athletes. Since there is a constant pressure to perform and meet certain expectations, and as the specifics of high pressure situations can vary, all of these moments share common attributes: the outcome is important to the athlete, the outcome is uncertain, and the athlete feels they are responsible for the outcome. As authors of the book, “Performing Under Pressure The Science of Doing Your Best When It Matters Most”, Hendrie Weisinger and J.P. Pawliw-Fry put it: “The more important the outcome is to you, the more uncertain the outcome, and the more responsible you feel for the results (and the more judged you feel), the more intense the pressure situation and the more likely you are to underperform” (47). Naturally, all athletes want to succeed in the tasks they deem the most important in order to avoid failure. One key aspect in understanding situation like this is understanding the role the hormone Cortisol has in the minds of those in these situations. Cortisol is an important hormone in relation to how athletes react under pressure. The hormone alters our ability to retrieve both working and cognitive memory. Working memory affects one’s judgement, their ability to analyze data, and how well they recall crucial information for decision making. Procedural memory affects one’s ability to perform tasks they have already mastered, actions that are already memorized. For most athletes these would be important functions to have under control in a crucial moment of competition. Cortisol, in combination with corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), “produced by the amygdala, cortisol incites anxiety, commonly called “anticipatory anxiety”, and suppresses the production of testosterone. In absence of testosterone, approach-based behavior diminishes and our attention becomes selectively focused on negative aspects of a situation” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 49). Because of this, athletes may see things in their environment as threatening, and becoming paranoid. This causes their thinking to become much more emotional based rather than factual, amplifying that uncertain feeling of their potential outcome. An athlete’s success not only comes from how well they perform during competition, but how they are seen outside of competing. Being perceived by the public media, coaches, parents, or other teammates can wildly change how an athlete can behave during a match. High pressure situations evoke feelings of inadequacy, humiliation, and harassment if an athlete does not perform up to par. If a competitor is to “choke” when it matters the social pain from feeling or being rejected can cause similar pain to that of a physical wound. Matthew Lieberman of UCLA conducted neuroimaging studies in order to show the connection between social and physical pain, and the underlying process system our brain goes through. He described the significance of his findings: “...we are profoundly shaped by our social environment and that we suffer greatly when our bonds are threatened or severed. The things that cause us to feel pain are things that are evolutionarily recognized as threats to our survival…” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 51&52). Continus fear of social rejection can create a higher chance of choking in a performance. Choking is every performers nightmare. It is one thing for an athlete to be impacted by pressure, but when an entire athletic performance is compromised, we define that as a choke. In the academic article “Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure,” author Mark Otten describes a choke performance as: “...any performance “decrement” of inferior performance under pressure circumstances” (qtd. in Baumeister 610). Choking occurs when the individual wants to perform well, yet delivers a performance that is below what they are capable of. The way pressure chokes an athlete can be broken up into three factors of the human performance system: 1) Physical arousal, 2) thoughts, and 3) behavior. These three functioning systems rely off one another. The book, Performing Under Pressure, describes how pressure chokes one in relation to these three functions as the following:
“One way or another it disrupts your performance system. In a pressure moment, if your heart rates starts to zoom, your thinking is apt to become rigid and distorted. Similarly, if you perceive that your survival depends on the outcome of the pressure moment, you are apt, to stimulate anxiety and fear arousal that, in turn, make the moment even more threatening. The end result: you lose control of your physical arousal, thinking ability, and capability to execute the behaviors you need” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 58&59).
Attention during pressure moments is typically narrow for the athlete. They may experience higher levels of self-doubt and interfering thoughts that are irrelevant to the task at hand, despite being more than ready to perform. Athletes will often wonder if they have what it takes, or if their level is “good enough”, derailing their abilities and causing them to second guess themselves when it matters most. While athletes are more apt to be victim to choke performances as a result of debilitative anxiety, some athletes are able to perform better under pressure. This is known as a “clutch performance”. In the academic article “Choking vs. Clutch Performance: A Study of Sport Performance Under Pressure,” Otten goes to describe a clutch performance as: “...any performance increment or superior performance that occurs under pressure circumstances” (Ottan 2). Clutch performances can be attributed to how the functional responses of the athlete differ to the requests of the competition. This can also relate back to the intrinsic/extrinsic motivations of the athlete, what they personally wish to get out of their performance and where their satisfaction lies. Whether they’re aiming to please their team, their fans, or push themselves to their limits. Forms of psychological momentum can also be a potential advantage to avoid choking; or an added “psychological power” that gives an athlete the feeling that they have an advantage over their competition. In other words, this could also be defined as “psyching out” the rest of the field. Some athletes may know how to react better under pressure due to prediction and control, which gives them higher attention levels to the task at hand. The levels of pressure that are accompanied with certain performances can heightened physical arousal in some athletes leading them to an individual zone of optimal functioning. However, as the Yerkes Dodson Law predicts, “ As arousal increases, performance also increases - but only to a certain point, after which increasing arousal actually decreases performance” (Yerkes-Dodson Law). Although there is no concrete one size fits all answer as to why some athlete perform well under pressure and some do not, training athletes in the direction of confidence, controlled performances, and steering them away from investing unneeded attention in the task at hand is imperative for success under extreme levels of pressure. Certain measures can be taken in order to alter the effects of rigid moments. In the following segment, the topic of regulating the consequences of pressure will be overviewed, in order to provide athletes with affective pressure solutions so that they may avoid choking moments in future competition.
Section D: Effective Remediation Methods For the Passionate Athlete
There is no secret as to why some athletes buckle under pressure, and some rise to the occasion. However, there are certain practices that can be taken up in order to relieve the high stress feelings an athlete can encounter. These solutions can be classified as, “pressure solutions” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 110). A pressure solution is a strategy that can be used regulate and redirect the pressure of a moment so athletes can perform to their fullest potential. “Pressure solutions immunize you to the pressure moment because, in one way or another they:
- Reduce feelings of anxiety, stress, fear, embarrassment
- Avoid distraction
- Regulate your arousal
- Guide your behavior
- Help you focus on what helps you” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 110).
As referenced, one of the first steps in remediation is utilizing the moment. This can begin with different forms of emotion regulation and management. In order to help manage emotions, athletes can attempt forms of emotion regulation in order to control their emotion regulation process. Athletes can work through, selecting the situation, changing the situation, and diverting their attention to help them manage the moment. Emotion regulation can be defined as, “...the effort that individuals submit to amplify, maintain or decrease one or more aspects of an emotion” (qtd. in Gross & Thompson, 2007). Athletes can practice their regulation of expression through “deep acting” and “surface acting”; through these actions the regulation of inner feeling can produce behaviors that can benefit performance in certain situations. Deep acting can be characterized by a person who is attempting to feel a specific emotion that they’re thinking about in their mind. Similarly, surface acting can be characterized by one attempting to fake an emotion to meet certain social rules. The internal manifestation of certain feelings and emotions can generate positive feelings to act as beneficial requests of the competition. Befriending the moment can be an athletes most reliable strategy. When an athlete takes control of their cognitive tendencies and general expressions they construct a byproduct of success though meeting their own challenges. It is common that athletes see high-pressure situations as threatening. On the contrast, if athletes convince themselves that high pressure situations are a challenge or an opportunity to show their full potential, building this confidence helps athletes draw on the positive aspects of their sport and the skills they excel at. Hence, releasing the effects of pressure. The book, Performing Under Pressure represents the importance of befriending the pressure moment on a physiological level:
“Feeling challenged in an inherent performance steroid-your body releases more adrenaline than noradrenaline, which means the smooth muscle in your blood vessels dilate, as do your lungs, and now you have more oxygenated blood going to the tissues that need it. Your body has more energy and your brain can think more clearly” (Weisinger et al. Pawliw-Fry 112).
Thriving on the challenge of performance as opposed to the threat, helps the athlete to put their attention towards the “mission”. The confidence that also comes with emotion regulation and management also helps affirm self-worth. Putting away self-consciousness and tuning in on strengths naturally affirms ego. Affirming ego to a certain extent creates a more adaptable athlete; one that can handle pressure situations and failure with more resiliency. Calling upon previous success helps create a mindset in athletes that ensures success again is possible. Thoughts and behavior associated with past experience become imprinted on the brain, the more frequently these experiences are thought of, the more implanted they become and the more likely they are to resurface in current experiences. Using these tools, nervousness can be transformed into positive pressure solutions for every passionate athlete, helping even the most prepared navigate high pressure situations.
Part IV: Conclusions and Discussions
“You don’t need to heap pressure on yourself, because it can make you close down and shrivel up. You fight that. You stay open. You stay calm. You trust all the work you did. And that will make you free.”
-Anthony Ervin
Mind, body, and sport. Not only must an athletes daily routine work to keep up all three of these vital functions, but the athlete and those supporting them must be patient. Patient, not only for a promising performance outcome, but patient in the athlete. Patient in their ability to handle the high levels of somatic and mental stress due to pressure that so many other athletes like them face everyday. The purpose of this paper was to outline the dangerous effects of mental disorders caused by pressure, the characteristics of both, and how athletes can take preventative measures to avoid such detrimental issues. Although there have been advancements in this field, the root for optimal training begins in the mind. The unfortunate reality of this situation is athletes seldom open up about mental disorders they may face due to cultural stigma. Mental disorders such as: anxiety, eating disorders, overtraining syndrome, and depression; often lead to “choke” performances. The key to remediation comes in the act of “pressure solutions” and the help from psychologists who specialize in the field. However, more work is to be done in this area as many resources for students are not made up of licensed psychologists with proper experience. Environmental influences shape the social aspects of the brain, the larger implications of this research strongly suggest that harmful societal expectations place unneeded pressure on athletes putting not only their physical performance at stake, but their mental wellbeing as well. In order for athletes to continue to thrive in such daunting environments, much of the remediation process is left in their own hands. Athletes of all levels make up many different communities around the country, and the social world of organized sports should not be keeping athletes from the competitions they are passionate about. Athletes may set the bar for their own success, but struggling in silence only increases the pressure and emotional strain they face everyday, which it why it is imperative that more research be done on this topic. Every athlete deserves to be passionate about the sports that the love; the arise of pressure and mental disorders should never keep them from performing to their fullest potential. The desire to seek help in such an unforgiving field does not admit weakness, but proves the strength within.